• Landcare and Livelihoods: The Promotion and Adoption of Conservation Farming
  Systems in the Philippine Uplands. R.A. Cramb and Z. Culasero
• Developing and Webbing Local Extension Capacities for Improved Upland Farming: Experiences in Southern Mindanao. Alexander U. Tabbada, Dashiel P. Indelible, Wiebe van Rij, Dinah Q. Tabbada and Ben Hur R. Viloria
• Social capital and soil conservation: Evidence from the Philippines. R.A. Cramb

• Ancestral Domain and National Park Protection: A Mutually Supportive Paradigm? A case study of the Mt. Kitanglad Range Nature Park, Bukidnon, Philippines (abstract)
• Tenure and Community Resource Management: Case Studies for Northern Mindanao

• Scaling Up Soil Conservation Programs: The Case of Landcare in the Philippines
• Social Capital and Soil Conservation: Evidence from the Philippines
• Political and Institutional Transformation in Environmental Governance: A Case Study of Local Governments in the Philippines
• Decentralizing Natural Resources Management: Emerging Lessons from ICRAF Collaboration in Southeast Asia (abstract)
• Grassroots Empowerment and Sustainability in the Management of Critical Natural Resources: A Case of the Agroforestry Tree Seed Association of Lantapan
• Growing Agroforestry Trees: Farmer’s Experiences with Individual and Group Nurseries in Claveria, Philippines
• Local Organizations in Natural Resource Management in the Uplands of Southeast Asia: Policy Context and Institutional Landscape
• Modalities of Scaling-up Landcare and NRM in the Philippines: Creating space for public-private partnerships at the local level
• Modalities of Scaling-up Technology-Dissemination Approaches in Natural Resources Management: Landcare and NRM Planning Process in Northern and Central Mindanao, Philippines (abstract)

• Building Research on Farmers’ Innovations: Low Cost NVS and Soil Fertility Management
• Contour Farming Based on Natural Vegetative Strips: Expanding the Scope for Increased Food Crop Production on Sloping Lands in Asia
• Managing Soil Fertility on Terraces Forming Behind Vegetative Filter Strips: An Assessment of Farmers’ Strategies
• Natural Resource Management on a Watershed Scale: What can Agroforestry Contribute (abstract)
• Natural Vegetative Strip Technology: “no-cost” paradigms that may help transform tropical smallholder conservation

• A Landscape/Lifescape Approach to Sustainability in the Tropics: The experience of the SANREM CRSP at three sites (abstract)
• Governance and Natural Resource Management: Key factors and policy implications: Emerging lessons from ICRAF-SANREM collaboration in the Philippines
• Integrated Natural Resource Management on the Poverty-protection Interface in an Asian Watershed
• Participatory Approaches to Catchments Management: Some experiences to build upon (abstract)
• Propagating Eucalyptus Species – Recommendations or smallholders in the Philippines
• Technical and Institutional Innovations to Conservation Farming and Agroforestry: Components of Sustainable Watershed Management
• Technical Innovations and Institution-Building for Sustainable Upland Development: The case of Landcare in the Philippines
• The Landcare Experience in the Philippines: Technical and Institutional Innovations for Conservation Farming
• The Interface Between Poverty and Protection: The challenge in integrated natural resource management

For ICRAF Southeast Asia Publications, send requests to:

ICRAF Southeast Asia Regional Research Programme
PO Box 161, Bogor 160001, Indonesia

Tel: 62 251 625 415;
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Email: M. Christina@cgiar.org;
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For inquiries on the above-listed Philippines publications, please click here to eMail the webmaster

This chapter relies on various sources of information on the drivers of ecosystem change considered in the sub-global assessments, in particular the state of the assessment reports. In addition, information was collected throughout the process, in particular through two questionnaires filled in by the sub-global assessment teams (Q1, Q2), the two knowledge markets (KM1, KM2), and personal communication with key individuals. Because the sub-global assessments and their focus on ecosystem services are user-driven, the results presented here cover only some of what can be found in the scientific literature on this topic (for example, with respect to land use and land cover change; see Lambin et al. 2003). Nevertheless, the chapter seeks to draw as many lessons as possible from comparison of drivers across the sub-global assessments. A complete presentation of all the individual drivers identified by each assessment can be found in the individual assessment reports available on the MA website (www.MAweb.org).

Research and Development (R&D) institutions are now committed to scale up the impacts of technical innovations. This is because of the increasing pressures to account for resources and to demonstrate that they are important investments of public resources. A combination of economic and developmental motives makes a good justification for scaling up. However, the question is how to scale up successful programs in cost effectively.

Several reviews on scaling up case studies provided useful lessons. However, they were mostly based on informal analysis and reflections from practitioners rather than on planned research. The lack of research in scaling up is considered a problem and is primarily due to the traditional view that:

• dissemination and scaling up is devoid of research; and
• it is free from the responsibility of pure development and extension agencies.

This reflected the long-held gap between R&D. However, if R&D institutions are to close this gap, scaling up research should be high on their agenda.

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Tropical forests have an important role to play in climate regulation as sources and sinks of carbon. They can help mitigate climate change by conserving existing carbon stocks, expanding carbon in terrestrial systems, and by substituting fossil fuels. The Kyoto Protocol sets greenhouse gas emission limits for Annex 1 (developed) nations. The Clean Development Mechanism (Article 12) is one of the three flexibility mechanisms established to meet the goals of the Kyoto Protocol. In COP-6, the parties agreed to include land use, land-use change and forestry projects under the Clean Development Mechanism but limited projects to afforestation and reforestation. The potential of Philippines forestlands to sequester carbon is presented. Millions of hectares of denuded lands are potentially suitable for reforestation and agroforestry type of activities. Finally, the paper discusses the potential global market size of the Clean Development Mechanism.

Agroforestry has considerable potential to address the twin problems of rural poverty and environmental degradation in the Philippine uplands. The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) has been promoting agroforestry by working with a range of partners including local governments and communities. In particular, ICRAF helped initiate the Landcare Program, a successful farmer-led extension program based on community landcare groups, in the Municipality of Claveria in the northern Mindanao. The Landcare Program has resulted in widespread adoption of agroforestry practices and, as a consequence, has been scaled up to several other sites to achieve wider adoption, and increase the impacts of agroforestry. Results of four case studies to assess the factors promoting effective scaling up of agroforestry within the Landcare Program are presented. It was found that Landcare was associated with rapid adoption of soil conservation and agroforestry technologies in the different sites, due to the strong latent demand for the technologies. Landcare groups were the key to success but required on-going support to function well. Reliance on local governments as the ‘lead institution’ tied the Landcare program to political and budgetary cycles, undermining sustainability. The case studies indicate that scaling up agroforestry practices depends on the viability of the landcare approach. It was also found that some features of the local context, the effectiveness of implementing strategies, the relevance of the landcare approach, and institutional capacity promoted successful scaling up. Furthermore, institutional and political barriers to scaling up should be removed, and broader institutional and political support should be in placed to promote rapid scaling up of agroforestry.

Sloping uplands in Southeast Asia are the most diverse, extensive, and fragile ecosystems. The development and dissemination of sustainable soil conservation technologies in these ecosystems is a formidable task.

ICRAF’s research in sloping uplands in Mindanao and Visayas found that natural vegetative strips (NVS) is a farmer-led technical innovation based on contour farming that has provided a simple, low-cost solution to soil erosion. NVS unwraps the SALT package, is adaptable to the range of farmers’ land use choices and often used as a starting point towards more productive agroforestry systems. Rapid adoption of NVS by farmers was achieved through the Landcare approach.

Landcare is based on partnership of Landcare groups (farmers), local government units (LGU’s) and technical service providers and facilitators (ICRAF). As an extension approach for rapid and inexpensive diffusion of conservation farming, agroforestry practices and other natural resource management systems, it consists of appropriate technologies, community institution development, and partnership building. While the most practical benefit of the Landcare approach was the rapid adoption of soil conservation and agroforestry practices, the development of human and social capital is considered its most important impact. Successful adoption of soil conservation technologies for economic and environmental benefits thus depend on a proven set of flexible technologies and a parallel, farmer-led institutional innovation for education and support.

In the Philippines, smallholder farmers have become major timber producers. Farmers’ intensive tree establishment and management practices ensure tree survival and growth. However, the systems of timber production practiced have several limitations. In intercropping systems, the practice of severe branch or root pruning reduces tree-crop competition and increases annual crop yields, but is detrimental to tree growth and incompatible with commercial timber production. In even-aged woodlots, lack of regular income and poor tree growth, resulting from farmers’ reluctance to thin their plantations, are major constraints to adoption and profitable tree farming. Financial analyses showed that at current stumpage prices, smallholder agroforestry systems that produce low quality timber are not a viable alternative to maize farming. On the other hand, higher returns to labor and capital invested from intercropping systems suggests that farmers with scarce labor or capital would maximize returns by establishing timber-based agroforestry systems on their excess land. The application of a simple linear programming model developed for the optimal allocation of land to monocropping and tree intercropping considering farmers’ resource constraints showed that cumulative additions of widely spaced tree hedgerows provides higher returns to land, and reduce the risk of agroforestry adoption by spreading over the years labor and capital investment costs and the economic benefits accruing to farmers from trees. Therefore, incremental planting of widely spaced tree hedgerows can make farm forestry more adoptable and thus benefit a larger number of resource-constrained farmers in their evolution towards more diverse and productive agroforestry systems.